ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 1 DB Rec# - 594 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINATOC Title :TABLE OF CONTENTS - CHINA ARMY AREA HANDBOOK Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : Table of Contents............................................... Acknowledgments ................................................ Preface ........................................................ Country Profile ................................................ Introduction ................................................... Chapter 1. Historical Setting ................................. Rinn-Sup Shinn and Robert L. Worden THE ANCIENT DYNASTIES .......................................... The Dawn of History .................................. The Zhou Period ...................................... The Hundred Schools of Thought ....................... THE IMPERIAL ERA ............................................... The First Imperial Period ............................ Era of Disunity ...................................... Restoration of Empire ................................ Mongolian Interlude .................................. The Chinese Regain Power ............................. The Rise of the Manchus .............................. EMERGENCE OF MODERN CHINA ...................................... The Western Powers Arrive ............................ The Opium War, 1839-42 .............................. The Taiping Rebellion, 1851-64 ...................... The Self-Strengthening Movement ...................... The Hundred Days' Reform and the Aftermath ........... The Republican Revolution of 1911 .................... REPUBLICAN CHINA ............................................... Nationalism and Communism ............................ Anti-Japanese War .................................... Return to Civil War .................................. THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ................................. The Transition to Socialism, 1953-57 ................. The Great Leap Forward, 1958-60 ...................... Readjustment and Recovery, 1961-65 ................... The Cultural Revolution Decade, 1966-76 .............. The Post-Mao Period, 1976-78 ......................... China and the Four Modernizations, 1979-82 ........... Chapter 2. Physical Environment and Population ................. Michael L. Waddle PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................ Boundaries ............................................ Terrain and Drainage .................................. Climate ............................................... Wildlife .............................................. POPULATION ...................................................... The Data Base ......................................... Mortality and Fertility ............................... Population Control Programs ........................... Density and Distribution .............................. Migration ............................................. Minority Nationalities ................................ Labor Force ........................................... Health Care ........................................... Chapter 3. The Social System ................................... Donald R. DeGlopper ETHNIC BOUNDARIES ............................................... HAN DIVERSITY AND UNITY ......................................... TRADITIONAL SOCIETY AND CULTURE ................................. Diffusion of Values ................................... The Confucian Legacy .................................. Traditional Social Structure .......................... The Examination System ................................ Social Stratification ................................. Stratification and Families ........................... Social Mobility ....................................... SOCIAL CHANGE ................................................... DIFFERENTIATION ................................................. The Work Place ........................................ Communist Party Membership ............................ Urban-Rural Distinctions .............................. Regional Distinctions ................................. COMMON PATTERNS ................................................. Work Units ............................................ Wages and Benefits .................................... Informal Mechanisms of Exchange ....................... RURAL SOCIETY ................................................... Collectivization and Class Status ..................... Decollectivization .................................... The Role of the Household ............................. Consequences of Rural Reform .......................... Regulations and Favors ................................ Family and Household .................................. Marriage .............................................. Community Structure ................................... URBAN SOCIETY ................................................... Distinctive Features .................................. Housing ............................................... Families and Marriage ................................. Providing for the Next Generation ..................... Opportunities and Competition ......................... Examinations, Hereditary Transmission of Jobs, and Connections ...................................... WOMEN ........................................................... RELIGION ........................................................ TRENDS AND TENSIONS ............................................. Chapter 4. Education and Culture ............................... Andrea Matles Savada and Ronald E. Dolan EDUCATION POLICY ................................................ THE EDUCATION SYSTEM ............................................ New Directions ........................................ Compulsory Education Law .............................. Key Schools ........................................... PRIMARY EDUCATION ............................................... Primary Schools ....................................... Preschool Education ................................... Special Education ..................................... SECONDARY EDUCATION ............................................. Middle Schools ........................................ Vocational and Technical Schools ...................... HIGHER EDUCATION ................................................ Background ............................................ Modernization Goals in the 1980s ...................... Educational Investment ................................ TEACHERS ........................................................ ADULT EDUCATION ................................................. Role in Modernization ................................. Alternative Forms ..................................... Literacy and Language Reform .......................... POLICY TOWARD INTELLECTUALS ..................................... Background ............................................ Post-Mao Development .................................. CULTURE AND THE ARTS ............................................ Traditional Literature ................................ Literature in the Post-Mao Period ..................... Traditional Arts ...................................... Contemporary Performing Arts .......................... Publishing ............................................ Libraries and Archives ................................ Chapter 5. Economic Context .................................... Thomas R. Gottschang GENERAL NATURE OF THE ECONOMY ................................... ECONOMIC POLICIES, 1949-80 ...................................... Recovery from War, 1949-52 ............................ The First Five-Year Plan, 1953-57 .................... The Great Leap Forward, 1958-60 ....................... Readjustment and Recovery: "Agriculture First," 1961-65 ............................................... Events During the Cultural Revolution, 1966-76 ........ The Post-Mao Interlude, 1976-78 ....................... Reform of the Economic System, Beginning in 1979 ...... STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF THE ECONOMY .......................... Roles of the Government and the Party ................. The Two Major Sectors: Agriculture and Industry ....... Other Important Sectors ............................... Planning .............................................. The Budget ............................................ The Banking System .................................... Prices ................................................ LIVING STANDARDS ................................................ Progress since 1949 ................................... Income Distribution ................................... POTENTIAL FOR ACHIEVING NATIONAL GOALS .......................... Chapter 6. Agriculture ......................................... Frederick W.Crook RESOURCE ENDOWMENT .............................................. AGRICULTURAL POLICIES ........................................... The 1950s ............................................. Importance of Agriculture Recognized .................. Recovery .............................................. Post-Mao Policies ..................................... PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION ....................................... OPERATIONAL METHODS AND INPUTS .................................. Cropping Patterns ..................................... Fertilizer ............................................ Mechanization ......................................... Water Conservancy ..................................... Pest Control .......................................... Seed Varieties ........................................ Agricultural Science .................................. PRODUCTION ...................................................... Crops ................................................. Animal Husbandry ...................................... Forestry .............................................. Fishery ............................................... Sideline Production ................................... AGRICULTURAL TRADE .............................................. Chapter 7. Industry ............................................ Michael L. Waddle TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION ................................. ORGANIZATION .................................................... GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY ........................... LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGY ............................................. SUPPLIES OF INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES ................................ Capital ............................................... Labor ................................................. Raw Materials ......................................... Energy ................................................ MANUFACTURING ................................................... Iron and Steel ........................................ Machine Building ...................................... Chemicals ............................................. Building Materials .................................... Paper ................................................. Textiles .............................................. Food Processing ....................................... Other Consumer Goods .................................. CONSTRUCTION .................................................... Housing Construction .................................. Capital Construction .................................. MINING .......................................................... Coal .................................................. Iron Ore .............................................. Other Minerals and Metals ............................. ENERGY .......................................................... Oil and Natural Gas ................................... Electric and Nuclear Power ............................ RURAL INDUSTRY .................................................. DEFENSE INDUSTRY ................................................ Chapter 8. Trade and Transportation ............................ Roxane D.V. Sismanidis and Ernestine H. Wang INTERNAL TRADE AND DISTRIBUTION ................................. Agriculture ........................................... Industry .............................................. Lateral Economic Cooperation .......................... Retail Sales .......................................... FOREIGN TRADE ................................................... History of Chinese Foreign Trade ...................... Trade Policy in the 1980s ............................. Organization of Foreign Trade ......................... Composition of Foreign Trade .......................... Trading Partners ...................................... Tourism ............................................... TRANSPORTATION .................................................. Railroads ............................................. Subways ............................................... Highways and Roads .................................... Bridges ............................................... Inland Waterways ...................................... Maritime Shipping ..................................... Civil Aviation ........................................ POSTAL SERVICES ................................................. TELECOMMUNICATIONS .............................................. Historical Development ................................ Telecommunication Services ............................ Chapter 9. Science and Technology .............................. Donald R. DeGlopper HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY ......... Pre-1949 Patterns ..................................... Soviet Influence in the 1950s ......................... "Reds" Versus "Experts" in the 1950s and 1960s ........ Rehabilitation and Rethinking, 1977-84 ................ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 1980s ............................. The Supply of Skilled Manpower ........................ Research Institutes ................................... National Organization and Administration .............. Integration of Administrative Systems ................. International Ties .................................... THE REFORM PROGRAM .............................................. Shortcomings of the Science and Technology System ..... The Program ........................................... TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ............................................ Policy ................................................ Modes of Transfer ..................................... Linking Technology and Economics ...................... Chapter 10. Party and Government................................. Marcia R. Ristaino CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY ......................................... Party Constitution .................................... National Party Congress ............................... Central Committee and Political Bureau ................ Secretariat ........................................... Central Military Commission ........................... Other Party Organs .................................... Membership ............................................ Mass Organizations .................................... THE GOVERNMENT .................................................. Constitutional Framework .............................. The National People's Congress ........................ The State Council ..................................... The Judiciary ......................................... Local Administration .................................. The Cadre System ...................................... THE MEDIA ....................................................... Chapter 11. The Political Process ............................... Marcia R. Ristaino POLITICAL REALIGNMENTS AT THE PARTY CENTER ...................... Deng Xiaoping Consolidates Power ...................... Institutionalizing Collective Leadership .............. A Successor Generation ................................ THE FIRST WAVE OF REFORM, 1979-84 ............................... The Opening Up Policy and Reform in the Countryside ... Rectification and Reform .............................. THE SECOND WAVE OF REFORM, 1984-86 .............................. The Repercussions of Urban Reform ..................... The Decentralization of Power ......................... THE THIRD WAVE OF REFORM, BEGINNING IN 1986 ..................... Political Reform ...................................... Resistance and the Campaign Against Bourgeois Liberalization ........................................ THE POLITICS OF MODERNIZATION ................................... The Components of Reform .............................. Competing Bureaucratic Interests ...................... Deng Xiaoping's Seminal Role .......................... MARXISM-LENINISM-MAO ZEDONG THOUGHT RE-THOUGHT .................. The Role of Ideology .................................. Ideology and the Socialist Man ........................ Ideology and Social Change ............................ Chapter 12. Foreign Relations ................................... Elizabeth E. Green EVOLUTION OF FOREIGN POLICY ..................................... Historical Legacy and Worldview ....................... Nationalism ........................................... The Influence of Ideology ............................. Decision Making and Implementation .................... AN OVERVIEW OF CHINA'S FOREIGN RELATIONS ........................ Sino-Soviet Relations ................................. Sino-American Relations ............................... Relations with the Third World ........................ Relations with the Developed World .................... China's Role in International Organizations ........... Chapter 13. Criminal Justice and Public Security ................ Ronald E. Dolan THE LEGAL SYSTEM ................................................ Imperial China ........................................ The Republican Period ................................. Developments after 1949 ............................... Return to Socialist Legality .......................... COURT STRUCTURE AND PROCESS ..................................... LAW ENFORCEMENT ................................................. Historical Background ................................. Public Security Forces ................................ Grass-Roots Organizations ............................. THE PENAL SYSTEM ................................................ Chapter 14. National Defense .................................... Roxane D.V. Sismanidis HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT, 1927-79 ................................. From the Founding of the People's Liberation Army to the Korean War ............................................. Military Modernization in the 1950s and 1960s .......... The People's Liberation Army in the Cultural Revolution. Military Modernization in the 1970s .................... MILITARY MODERNIZATION ........................................... Civil-Military Relations ............................... Military Organization .................................. Doctrine, Strategy, and Tactics ........................ Education and Training ................................. Personnel .............................................. Defense Industry and the Economic Role of the People's Liberation Army ........................................ PERCEPTION OF THREAT ............................................. The Soviet Union ....................................... Vietnam ................................................ India .................................................. South China Sea ........................................ Taiwan ................................................. FOREIGN MILITARY COOPERATION ..................................... FORCE STRUCTURE .................................................. Ground Forces........................................... Air Force .............................................. Navy ................................................... Nuclear Forces ......................................... Paramilitary Forces..................................... ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND PROSPECTS .................................... Appendix A. Tables................................................ Appendix B. Chronologies and Lists ............................... Appendix C. The People's Liberation Army at a Glance ............. Bibliography ..................................................... Glossary ......................................................... -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90000 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 2 DB Rec# - 595 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINAACK Title :ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge their use and adaptation of several chapters from the 1981 edition of China: A Country Study, edited by Frederica M. Bunge and Rinn-Sup Shinn. In particular, substantial parts of the following chapters were incorporated by the authors of the new edition: Martin Weil's "Physical Environment and Population," Joel N. Glassman's "Education and Culture," Thomas R. Gottschang's "Industry" and "Trade and Transportation," Rinn-Sup Shinn's "Party and Government," and David G. Barlow and Daniel W. Wagner's "Public Order and Internal Security." The authors also are indebted to a number of individuals in the United States government and in international, diplomatic, and private organizations who gave of their time and special knowledge on Chinese affairs to provide research data and perspective. Those who were particularly helpful were Judith Banister of the United States Bureau of the Census; Paul Schroeder of the Map Library, Department of State; Edward P. Parris of the Department of Defense; Chi Wang of the Asian Division, Library of Congress; and Constance A. Johnson of the Far Eastern Law Library, Library of Congress. The photographs that illustrate this study were generously contributed by a variety of individuals and public and private organizations. All have been credited in the captions. In particular, Liu Haiming of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China assisted in making available numerous photographs on diverse subjects. None of the aforementioned individuals or their organizations, however, are responsible for the contents of the book. The authors also wish to express their appreciation to members of the staff of the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, who contributed to the preparation of the book. Foremost among these was Barbara L. Dash, who meticulously reviewed the text. Without her assistance the entire effort would not have been as complete and as finely tuned as it has come to be. Ms. Dash was assisted in editing by Martha E. Hopkins and Glenn E. Curtis. Mervin J. Shello and Ly H. Burnham examined specialized and technical sections of the manuscript, and Carolina E. Forrester reviewed textual references to China's geography and scrutinized the maps that appear in this volume. David P. Cabitto, Sandra K. Cotugno, and Kimberly Lord provided copious graphic arts support. Tracy M. Henry assisted on numerous phases of the book including word processing of chapter texts, formatting and typing much of the tabular data, and proof reading. Alberta Jones King, Barbara Edgerton, and Izella Watson diligently provided word processing. Richard F. Nyrop reviewed all parts of the book and made valuable suggestions throughout its development. Others who contributed to this edition were Paulette A. Marshall, who designed the cover and chapter illustrations; Teresa E. Kamp, who prepared several of the maps; and Editorial Experts, which did the index. Andrea T. Merrill made a very important contribution to the overall consistency and quality of the book in performing the final, prepublication review. Also, the late John G. Early, head of the Printing and Processing Section, Library of Congress, was instrumental in establishing procedures for typesetting the final text. Peggy F. Pixley, of the same section, directed the actual typesetting which was accomplished by Diann Johnson. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90001 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 3 DB Rec# - 596 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINAPRE Title :PREFACE Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : Preface China in the 1980s was a nation rapidly modernizing as its leadership implemented sweeping reforms in the economic, social, and political sectors and adopted a policy of opening up to the outside world. The scale and pace of China's comprehensive modernization program have necessitated this new and updated edition of China: A Country Study, which supersedes the third edition published in 1981 under the same title. Much of what was reported in 1981 has been overtaken by events. Sources of information in the new edition have included scholarly journals and monographs, official reports of governments and international organizations, foreign and domestic media reports, numerous periodicals, and, significantly, the increasingly available and accurate Chinese government statistical reports and analyses. Bibliographic essays calling attention to useful sources of further reading appear at the end of each chapter. The aim of the authors has been to present an understanding of China in a period of transition and modernization against the backdrop of both a long and illustrious historical heritage and twentieth-century political turmoil. As an aid to readers seeking an understanding of the broad framework of China's long history, a chronology of dynasties is provided (see table A). Increasingly reliable information about all sectors of Chinese society became available in the 1980s--emanating from scholars and technical experts, both Chinese and foreign--aiding the authors of this volume in presenting what is hoped is a clear and thoughtful analysis. Nevertheless, gaps in data and inconsistent reporting have required the authors to make interpretations and conclusions, some of which must be regarded as highly tentative. Both old questions and new developments need additional investigation by interested observers of Chinese affairs. With certain minor exceptions, Chinese personal names and place-names in this study are represented according to the pinyin system of romanization. For those familiar with the Wade-Giles system of romanization, once commonly used in Western-language publications on Chinese subjects and still used in whole or in part by some, conversions are provided for pinyin, Wade-Giles, and conventional ("post office") spellings of major place-names (see table 2, table 3, Appendix A). The standard spellings provided by the United States Board on Geographic Names are used throughout the book. Exceptions were made for the names of well-known historical figures like Confucius and Sun Yat-sen and certain place-names, such as Hong Kong and Macao, to coincide with official usage in English-language publications of the government of the People's Republic of China. It should be noted too that in the text and on maps some generic parts of Chinese geographic names have been retained in following Chinese official usage in foreign-language publications. Thus jiang and he (river), hai (sea), wan (bay), and shan and ling (mountain) have been used, but the English terms have been retained for island, plateau, basin, plain, desert, province, autonomous region, and special municipality. Measurements are given in the metric system; a table is provided to assist those readers who wish to convert between metric and nonmetric systems (see table 1, Appendix A). A glossary and bibliography also are included at the back of the book. Organizational names are spelled out to avoid confusing those reading about China for the first time. Thus, there are the National Party Congress (of the Chinese Communist Party) and the National People's Congress (the legislature), rather than the acronym NPC. Some longer or more complicated names appear in acronym form after being spelled out in their first use in each chapter. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90002 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 4 DB Rec# - 597 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINATABA Title :TABLE A: CHRONOLOGY OF CHINESE DYNASTIES Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : Table A. Chronology of Chinese Dynasties _______________________________________________________________________ Dates Dynasty _______________________________________________________________________ ca. 21st-16th century B.C. ....... Xia 1700-1027 B.C. ................... Shang 1027-771 B.C. .................... Western Zhou 770-221 B.C. ..................... Eastern Zhou 770-476 B.C. ................. Spring and Autumn period 475-221 B.C. ................. Warring States period 221-207 B.C. ..................... Qin 206 B.C.-A.D. 9 .................. Western Han A.D. 9-24......................... Xin (Wang Mang interregnum) A.D. 25-220 ...................... Eastern Han A.D. 220-280 ..................... Three Kingdoms (San Guo) 220-265 ....................... Wei 221-263 ....................... Shu 229-280 ....................... Wu A.D. 265-316 ..................... Western Jin A.D. 317-420 ..................... Eastern Jin A.D. 420-588 ..................... Southern and Northern Dynasties 420-588 ....................... Southern Dynasties 420-478 ....................... Song 479-501 ....................... Qi 502-556 ....................... Liang 557-588 ....................... Chen 386-588 ....................... Northern Dynasties 386-533 ....................... Northern Wei 534-549 ....................... Eastern Wei 535-557 ....................... Western Wei 550-577 ....................... Northern Qi 557-588 ....................... Northern Zhou A.D. 581-617 ..................... Sui A.D. 618-907 ..................... Tang A.D. 907-960 ..................... Five Dynasties A.D. 907-979 ..................... Ten Kingdoms 916-1125 ................. Liao 960-1279 ................. Song 960-1127 ................. Northern Song 1127-1279 ................ Southern Song 1038-1227................. Western Xia 1115-1234................. Jin 1279-1368................. Yuan 1368-1644................. Ming 1644-1911................. Qing ______________________________________________________________________ Source: Based on information from China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, 188-89; and Shao Chang Lee, "China's Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1964. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90003 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 5 DB Rec# - 598 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINATABB Title :TABLE B: ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SELECTED YEARS 1952-86 Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : Table B. Economic Indicators, Selected Years, 1952-86 ________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ Unit 1952 1957 1965 1970 1975 1980 1983 1984 1985 1986 ________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ GNP[1]........ billions of 1985 33 50 65 96 126 169 210 239 268 288 United States dollars[2] Population ... millions 575 647 725 830 924 987 1,025 1,035 1,045 1,060 Per capita 1985 United 57 77 89 116 136 171 205 231 257 272 GNP ........ States dollars[3] Grain ........ millions of 164 195 195 240 285 321 387 407 379 391 tons Cotton ....... -do- 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.7 4.6 6.3 4.1 3.5 Crude steel .. -do- 1.3 5.3 12.2 17.8 23.9 37.1 40.0 43.5 46.8 51.9 Crude oil .... -do- 0.4 1.5 11.3 30.7 77.1 105.9 106.1 114.6 124.9 130.7 Coal ......... -do- 66 131 232 354 482 620 715 789 872 883 Agricultural 100 120 123 142 169 188 248 283 302 313 production n.a. index ...... Industrial 100 245 478 855 1,271 1,911 2,222 2,524 2,966 3,239 production n.a. index ...... Exports ...... billions of 1985 0.8 1.6 2.2 2.3 7.3 18.3 22.2 26.1 27.4 30.9 United States dollars[2] Imports ...... -do- 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.3 7.5 19.5 21.4 27.4 42.3 42.9 ________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ n.a.--not applicable. [1] Gross national product. [2] Converted from 1985 yuan at the average 1985 exchange rate of US$100 = -Y293 .67. [3] GNP expressed in constant United States dollars does not fully reflect China 's national economic performance because of differences in income definitions, inaccurate prices, and exchange rate changes unrelated to economic forces. Sources: Based on information from State Statistical Bureau, People's Republic of China, Statistical Yearbook of China 1986, Hong Kong, 1986; and China Daily, various issues, 1987. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90004 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 6 DB Rec# - 599 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINACP Title :COUNTRY PROFILE Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : COUNTRY PROFILE COUNTRY Formal Name: People's Republic of China. Short Form: China. Term for Nationals: Chinese. Capital: Beijing. GEOGRAPHY Size: Area about 9.6 million square kilometers; east to west distance about 5,000 kilometers, from the Heilong Jiang (Amur River) to Pamir Mountains in Central Asia; north to south distance approximately 4,050 kilometers, from Heilongjiang Province to Hainan Island in south, and another 1,450 kilometers further south to Zengmu Shoal, territorial claim off north coast of Malaysia. Topography: Main topographic features include Qing-Zang (Qinghai-Tibet) Plateau 4,000 meters above sea level and Kunlun, Qin Ling, and Greater Hinggan ranges. Longest of country's numerous rivers, Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) and Huang He (Yellow River), extend for some 6,300 and 5,400 kilometers, respectively. Climate: Most of country in temperate belt. Complex climatic patterns ranging from cold-temperate north to tropical south. Precipitation varies regionally; temperatures range from minus 30xC in north in January to 28xC in south in July. Alternating wet monsoon in summer, dry monsoon in winter. SOCIETY Population: 1982 census reported total population of 1,008,180,738; official estimate at end of 1986 nearly 1.1 billion with 1.4 percent annual rate of increase. Urban population officially estimated at 382 million by end of 1985, or 37 percent of total. About 94 percent of population lives on approximately 36 percent of land. Education: In 1985, about 96 percent of primary-school-age children attended school as compared with about 20 percent before 1949. About 136 million students enrolled in more than 832,000 primary schools. Secondary-level middle schools divided into junior and senior stages; majority of schools at lower level. About 48.6 million students attended some 104,800 secondary-level institutions. Technical education emphasized. Intense competition for admission to more than 1,000 colleges and universities; about 1.7 million students in various higher educational institutions. Beijing and Qinghua universities and more than 100 other key universities most sought after by college entrants. Ethnic Minorities: As of 1987 China recognized 55 minority nationalities, numbering about 70 million persons, concentrated in northwest and southwest. Not largest, but most important politically, Tibetans (Zang nationality) and various Turkic-speaking groups constituted majorities in Xizang (Tibet) and Xinjiang-Uygur autonomous regions, respectively. Health: Level of health and medical care improving. System of national, provincial-level, and local facilities in urban and rural areas plus network of industrial and state-enterprise hospitals. Traditional and Western medicine both practiced. Average life expectancy of sixty-nine years in 1985. Many once-widespread epidemic diseases now under control or eradicated. ECONOMY Salient Features: Economic system in transition, cautiously moving away from Soviet-style central planning and gradually adopting market economy mechanisms and reduced government role. Industry, largely based on state and collective ownership, marked by increasing technological advancements and productivity. China's people's communes (see Glossary) eliminated by 1984--after more than twenty-five years--and responsibility system (see Glossary) of production introduced in agricultural sector. Private ownership of production assets legal, although major nonagricultural and industrial facilities still state owned and centrally planned. Restraints on foreign trade relaxed and joint ventures encouraged. Industry: In 1985 employed about 17 percent of labor force but produced more than 46 percent of gross national product (GNP). Fastest growing sector; average annual growth of 11 percent from 1952 to 1985. Wide range of technological levels; many small handicraft units; many enterprises using machinery installed or designed in 1950s and 1960s; significant number of big, up-to-date plants, including textile mills, steel mills, chemical fertilizer plants, and petrochemical facilities but also burgeoning light industries producing consumer goods. Produced most kinds of products made by industrialized nations but limited quantities of high-technology items. Technology transfer by importing whole plants, equipment, and designs an important means of progress. Major industrial centers in Liaoning Province, Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan area, Shanghai, and Wuhan. Mineral resources included huge reserves of iron ore; adequate to abundant supplies of nearly all other industrial minerals. Outdated mining and ore processing technologies gradually being replaced with modern techniques. Agriculture: In 1985 employed about 63 percent of labor force; proportion of GNP about 33 percent. Low worker productivity because of scanty supplies of agricultural machinery and other modern inputs. Most agricultural processes still performed by hand. Very small arable land area (just above 10 percent of total area, as compared with 22 percent in United States) in relation to size of country and population. Intensive use of land; all fields produce at least one crop a year; wherever conditions permit, two or even three crops grown annually, especially in south. Grain most important product, including rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, barley, and millet. Other important crops include cotton, jute, oilseeds, sugarcane, and sugar beets. Eggs a major product. Pork production has increased steadily; poultry and pigs raised on family plots. Other livestock relatively limited in numbers, except for sheep and goats, grazed in large herds on grasslands of Nei Monggol Autonomous Region (Inner Mongolia) and northwest. Substantial marine and freshwater fishery. Timber resources mainly located in northeast and southwest; much of country deforested centuries ago. Wide variety of fruits and vegetables grown. Energy Sources: Self-sufficient in all energy forms; coal and petroleum exported since early 1970s. Coal reserves among world's largest; mining technology inadequately developed but improving in late 1980s. Petroleum reserves very large but of varying quality and in disparate locations. Suspected oil deposits in northwest and offshore tracts believed to be among world's largest; exploration and extraction limited by scarcity of equipment and trained personnel; twenty-seven contracts for joint offshore exploration and production by Japanese and Western oil companies signed by 1982, but by late 1980s only handful of wells producing. Substantial natural gas reserves in north, northwest, and offshore. Hydroelectric potential greatest in world, sixth largest in capacity; very large hydroelectric projects under construction, others in planning stage. Thermal power, mostly coal fired, produced approximately 68 percent of generating capacity in 1985; expected to increase to 72 percent by 1990. Emphasis on thermal power in late 1980s seen by policy makers as quick, short-term solution to energy needs; hydroelectric power seen as long-term solution. Petroleum production growth to continue in order to meet needs of nationwide mechanization and provide important foreign exchange but domestic use to be restricted as much as possible. Foreign Trade: Small by international standards but growing rapidly in size and importance, represented 20 percent of GNP in 1985. Trade controlled by Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade and subordinate units and by Bank of China, foreign exchange arm of central bank. Substantial decentralization and increased flexibility in foreign trade operations since late 1970s. Textiles leading export category. Other important exports included petroleum and foodstuffs. Leading imports included machinery, transport equipment, manufactured goods, and chemicals. Japan dominant trading partner, accounting for 28.9 percent of imports and 15.2 percent of exports in 1986. Hong Kong leading market for exports (31.6 percent) but source of only 13 percent of imports. In 1979 United States became China's second largest source of imports and in 1986 was third largest overall trade partner. Western Europe, particularly Federal Republic of Germany, also major trading partner. Tourism encouraged and growing. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS Railroads: Basis of transportation system. About 52,000 kilometers of track in operation. Only 18 percent double tracked in 1984 and some important lines lacking modern equipment. Ninety percent of locomotives steam engines in 1979; but by mid-1980s production of diesel and electric models growing rapidly. Freight cars numbered 280,000, passenger cars numbered 20,000 in 1985. Railroads efficient within limits of track system. Expansion and improvement progressing in 1987. Roads: About 962,800 kilometers in 1986; about 80 percent surfaced. Importance of highways and motor vehicles growing but bicycles and animal carts still much in evidence throughout country. Inland Waterways: About 136,000 kilometers of navigable rivers, streams, lakes, and canals carried 44 percent of freight traffic in 1986, only slightly less than railroads. Rapid growth. Principal system Chang Jiang and its tributaries in central and east China; major freight artery. Secondary system Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) and its tributaries in south. Maritime Shipping: Rapidly growing merchant fleet; 600 vessels of various kinds in 1984, total cargo capacity over 16 million tons. Major ports include Shanghai, Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Qingdao, Tianjin, and Huangpu. Rapid modernization of port facilities. Civil Aviation: About 228,000 kilometers of domestic routes; about 94,000 kilometers of international routes in 1987. State airline General Administration of Civil Aviation of China known as CAAC. Regional airlines established in mid-1980s. Small but growing share of total freight and passenger traffic; important link to remote areas and foreign countries. In 1987 fleet included American-made Boeing 707, 737, 747, and 767 and McDonnell-Douglas MD-82 jetliners as well as other American, British, Soviet, West German, and domestic aircraft. Beijing International Airport completed in 1980. Telecommunications: Diversified system linked all parts of country by telephone, telegraph, radio, and television. Marked improvements by mid-1980s with influx of foreign technology and increased domestic production capabilities. International and long-distance telephone links by cable and satellite of high quality. Telegraph, facsimile, and telex all in use. International satellite ground stations in Beijing and Shanghai; domestic satellite communication network operational in 1986. Over 160 radio stations by mid-1980s; transistorized radio receivers common. Vast wired broadcasting system including over 2,600 stations carrying radio transmissions into all rural units and many urban areas. Television system grew rapidly in 1980s; 90 television stations and 80 million sets. Science and Technology: One of Four Modernizations, its high-speed development declared essential to all national economic development by Deng Xiaoping. Major breakthroughs in nuclear weapons, satellite launching and recovery, superconductivity, high-yield hybrid rice. Policy formulation at top levels puts emphasis on application of science to industry and foreign technology transfer. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Party and Government: A unitary and "socialist state of the dictatorship of the proletariat," based on Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought, led by 46-million-member Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Political processes guided by party Constitution and state Constitution, both promulgated in 1982; constitutions stress principle of democratic centralism (see Glossary), under which representative organs of both party and state are elected by lower bodies and they in turn elect their administrative arms at corresponding levels. Within representative and executive bodies minority must abide by decisions of majority; lower bodies obey orders of higher level organs. In theory, National Party Congress highest organ of power of party, but real power lies in Political Bureau of CCP Central Committee and, still more, in select Standing Committee of Political Bureau. National People's Congress highest government organ of state power; approves CCP policies and programs. Reforms implemented in early 1980s allowed more serious review and deliberations concerning government programs in National People's Congress. State Council serves as equivalent of cabinet; key members also hold positions in important party organs. Administrative Divisions: Divided into three tiers. In 1987 twenty-nine provincial-level units comprise twenty-one provinces, five autonomous regions, and three centrally governed special municipalities; middle tier consists of autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties, cities, and municipal districts; and basic level comprises townships, and villages. Justice: Four-level court system. Supreme People's Court in Beijing; higher people's courts in provinces, autonomous regions and special municipalities; intermediate people's courts at prefecture level and also in parts of provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities; basic people's courts in counties, towns, and municipal districts. Special courts handle matters affecting military, railroad transportation, water transportation, and forestry. Court system paralleled by hierarchy of prosecuting organs called people's procuratorates; at apex stands Supreme People's Procuratorate. Foreign Affairs: As of late 1980s, China pursued independent foreign policy and sought friendly relations and trade with many countries despite political differences. China regards itself as developing country and member of Third World. China, however, has close cooperative relations, including economic, technological, political, and limited military cooperation, with United States, Japan, and other industrially developed nations. Earlier strains in Chinese relations with Soviet Union, long considered by Beijing as main threat of war, somewhat ameliorated by late 1980s but still fell short of full normalization. NATIONAL SECURITY Armed Forces: In 1987 combined strength of combat support units of People's Liberation Army (PLA) just under 3 million. Ground forces estimated at 2.1 million, world's largest standing army. Air Force estimated at 390,000. Navy estimated at 350,000, including those assigned to Naval Air Force, Coastal Defense Forces, and Marine Corps. Strategic Missile Force estimated at 100,000. Combat Units and Major Equipment: In 1987 ground forces consisted of 35 main-force armies comprising 118 infantry divisions, 13 armored divisions, and 33 artillery and antiaircraft divisions; 73 regional-force divisions, about 70 main- and regional-force independent combat and combat support regiments. Major weapons systems included Type 59, Type 69, and Type 34 main battle tanks, Type 62 and Type 63 light battle tanks; various caliber howitzers and guns and antiaircraft artillery. Air Force equipment included nearly 5,200 combat aircraft. Navy equipment included 5 nuclear-powered submarines (3 attack and 2 ballistic missile launching), 110 diesel attack submarines, 46 major surface combatants (destroyers and frigates), 877 fast-attack craft (armed with guns, missiles, or torpedoes), nearly 900 other combatant and support ships and boats, and 780 Naval Air Force combat aircraft. Strategic Missile Force included 50 medium-range ballistic missiles (range of 650 nautical miles), 60 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (range of 1,620 nautical miles), 4 limited-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (range of 3,780 nautical miles), and 2 full-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (range of 8,100 nautical miles). Military Budget: Officially announced for 1987 at -Y20.4 billion (for value of the yuan--see Glossary). Western analysts believe defense spending roughly double announced budget, or about 4 percent of GNP. Police Agencies and Paramilitary Forces: Police organized under Ministry of Public Security. People's Armed Police Force, primarily demobilized PLA troops estimated at 600,000. Supported by grass-roots party, government, and neighborhood organizations. Armed militia estimated at 4.3 million, ordinary, unarmed militia estimated at 6 million. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90005 . ARMY AREA HANDBOOK access is provided courtesy of UM-St. Louis Libraries Match 7 DB Rec# - 600 Dataset-ARMAN Source :U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Source key :AR Program :ARMY AREA HANDBOOKS Program key :AR ARMAN Update sched. :Occasionally ID number :AR ARMAN CHINAINTRO Title :INTRODUCTION Data type :TEXT End year :1994 Date of record:04/19/1994 Keywords 3 : | China Text : INTRODUCTION REFORM--DUBBED CHINA'S "SECOND REVOLUTION"--was one of the most common terms in China's political vocabulary in the 1980s. Reform of the Chinese Communist Party and its political activities, reform of government organization, reform of the economy, military reforms, cultural and artistic reforms, indeed, China's post-Mao Zedong leaders called for reform of every part of Chinese society. The leaders of the People's Republic of China saw reform as the way to realize the broad goal of the Four Modernizations (announced by Premier Zhou Enlai in 1975: the modernization of industry, agriculture, science and technology, and national defense) and to bring China into the community of advanced industrial nations by the start of the new millennium. The reform movement had antecedents in Chinese history in the Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), Song (960-1279), and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, when concerted efforts were made to bring about fundamental changes in administrative methods while keeping the overall institutional framework intact. Thus, the reform movement of the 1980s--which has been attributed largely to the insights and determination of Deng Xiaoping, the most important figure in the post-Mao Zedong leadership--took its place in the broad spectrum of Chinese history. As with previous reform movements, history will measure this one's success. Late twentieth-century Chinese society has developed out of some 3,300 years of recorded history and, as archaeological finds indicate, several millennia of prehistoric civilization. For thousands of years, the Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo--the Chinese name for China) was marked by organizational and cultural continuity, which were reaffirmed in a cyclic rise, flourishing, and decline of imperial dynasties. Short-lived, vibrant, but often tyrannical dynasties frequently were followed by long periods of stability and benevolent rule that were built on the best features of the preceding era and that discarded or modified more authoritarian ideas. An ethical system of relations--governed by rules of propriety attributed to the School of Literati (also known as the Confucian school)--carefully defined each person's place in society. In this system, harmony of social relations rather than the rights of the individual was the ideal. The highest social status was held by scholar-officials, the literati who provided the interpretations needed for maintaining harmony in a slowly evolving world. Hard-working farmers, the providers of sustenance to society, also occupied an important place in the societal structure. China's development was influenced by the alien peoples on the frontiers of Chinese civilization, who were sinicized into the Chinese polity (see fig. 1, frontispiece). Occasionally, groups arose among alien border peoples that were strong enough to conquer China itself. These groups established their own dynasties, only to be absorbed into an age-old system of governance. The importation of Buddhism, too, in the first century A.D. and its gradual assimilation had a fundamental impact on China. Early contacts with the premodern Western world brought a variety of exchanges. The Chinese contributed silk, printing, gunpowder, and porcelain. Staple foodstuffs from Africa and the Americas were assimilated by China, as was the Western-style chair. In later centuries, Chinese scholars studied Western astronomy, mathematics, and other branches of science. Westerners arrived in China in the nineteenth century, during the decline of the Qing dynasty, in search of trade and colonial empires. Through force of arms the Westerners imposed unequal treaties compelling China to accept humiliating compromises to its traditional system of society and government. China reacted to intrusions from the West--and from a newly modernized Japan (to which China lost a war in 1895)--in a variety of ways, sometimes maintaining the traditional status quo, adapting Western functions to Chinese substance, or rejecting Chinese tradition in favor of Western substance and form. As the Qing dynasty declined, reforms came too late and did too little. The unsuccessful reform efforts were followed by revolution. Still burdened with the legacy of thousands of years of imperial rule and nearly a century of humiliations at foreign hands, China saw the establishment of a republic in 1911. But warlord rule and civil war continued for nearly forty more years, accompanied in 1937-45 by war with Japan. The Chinese civil war of 1945-49 was won by the Chinese Communist Party, the current ruling party of China, led by its chairman and chief ideologist, Mao Zedong. The Communists moved quickly to consolidate their victory and integrate all Chinese society into a People's Republic. Except for the island of Taiwan (which became the home of the exiled Guomindang under Chiang Kai-shek and his successors), the new government unified the nation and achieved a stability China had not experienced for generations. Eagerness on the part of some Communist leaders to achieve even faster results engendered the Great Leap Forward (1958-60), a program that attempted rapid economic modernization but proved disastrous. Political reaction to the Great Leap Forward brought only a temporary respite before a counterreaction occurred in the form of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), a period of radical experimentation and political chaos that brought the educational system to a halt and severely disrupted attempts at rational economic planning. When Mao Zedong died in 1976, the Cultural Revolution era effectively came to an end. Eager to make up for lost time and wasted resources, China's leaders initiated China's "second revolution"--a comprehensive economic modernization and organizational reform program. Deng Xiaoping and his associates mobilized the Chinese people in new ways to make China a world power. Starting with the Third Plenum of the Chinese Communist Party's Eleventh National Party Congress in December 1978, Deng reaffirmed the aims of the Four Modernizations, placing economic progress above the Maoist goals of class struggle and permanent revolution. Profit incentives and bonuses took the place of ideological slogans and red banners as China's leaders experimented with ways to modernize the economy. Mao's legendary people's communes were dismantled and replaced by a responsibility system, in which peasant households were given greater decision-making power over agricultural production and distribution. Farm families were allowed to lease land and grow crops of their own choosing. In the urban sector, factory managers were granted the flexibility to negotiate with both domestic and foreign counterparts over matters that previously had been handled by central planners in Beijing. Exploitation of China's rich natural resources advanced significantly in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. As China's industrial sector advanced, there was increasing movement of the population to urban areas. China's population itself had surpassed 1 billion people by 1982 and was experiencing an annual rate of increase of 1.4 percent. As in times past, foreign specialists were invited to assist in the modernization process, and joint ventures with foreign capitalists and multinational conglomerates proliferated. Increasing numbers of Chinese students went abroad to pursue advanced degrees in a wide range of scientific and technical fields. All this change was not without cost--both political and monetary. Efforts at fundamental transformation of economic, governmental, and political organizations caused discontent among some people and in some institutions and were resisted by those who clung to the "iron rice bowl" of guaranteed lifetime job tenure. Beijing's reform leaders made repeated calls for party members and government bureaucrats to reform their "ossified thinking" and to adopt modern methods. Older and inappropriately trained bureaucrats retired in great numbers as a younger and more technically oriented generation took over. In the ongoing debate between those who emphasized ideological correctness and those who stressed the need for technical competence--"reds" versus "experts"--the technocrats again emerged predominant. But developing and successfully applying technological expertise--the very essence of the Four Modernizations--cost vast sums of money and required special effort on the part of the Chinese people. In a rejection of the time-honored concept of "self-reliance," China entered into the milieu of international bank loans, joint ventures, and a whole panoply of once-abhorred capitalist economic practices. As politics and the economy continued to respond to and change each other, China's reformers had to balance contending forces within and against their reform efforts while maintaining the momentum of the Four Modernizations program. In doing so, Deng Xiaoping and his associates were faced with several unenviable tasks. One was to create unity and support for the scope and pace of the reform program among party members. There was also a necessity to deliver material results to the broad masses of people amid economic experiments and mounting inflation. Failure to achieve these balances and to make mid-course corrections could prove disastrous for the reform leadership. A sound ideological basis was needed to ensure the support of the party for the reform program. Deng's political idioms, such as "seeking truth from facts" and "socialism with Chinese characteristics," were reminiscent of reformist formulations of centuries past and had underlying practical ramifications. The supporters of Deng held that theory and practice must be fully integrated if success is to be hoped for, and they articulated the position that the Marxist-Leninist creed is not only valid but is adaptable to China's special--if not unique--situation. The ideological conviction that China was still in the "initial stage of socialism"--a viewpoint reaffirmed at the Thirteenth National Party Congress in October and November 1987--provided a still broader ideological basis for continuing the development of the Deng's reform program in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This ideological pronouncement also emphasized reformers' fundamental tenet that since the end of the "period of socialist transformation" (turning over private ownership of the means of production to the state) in 1956, there had been numerous "leftist" errors made in the party's ideological line. Mistakes such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution had produced setbacks in achieving "socialist modernization" and had kept China from emerging from the initial stage of socialism. It was, perhaps, the very failure of these leftist campaigns that had paved the way for the reforms of the 1980s. Political confrontation over the reforms was pervasive and, to many foreign observers, confusing. In simplistic terms, the "conservatives" in the reform debate were members of the post-Mao "left," while the "liberals" were the pro-Deng "right." Being conservative in China in the 1980s variously meant adhering to the less radical aspects of Maoist orthodoxy (not all of which had been discredited) or accepting the goals of reform but rejecting the pace, scope, or certain methods of the Deng program. Thus, there were both conservative opponents to reform and conservative reformers. While many reform opponents had been swept away into "retirement," conservative reformers until the late 1980s served as members of China's highest ruling body and locus of power, the Standing Committee of the party's Political Bureau. Such leaders as Standing Committee member Chen Yun, one of the principal architects of economic reform, objected to the "bourgeois liberalization" of the modernization process that came with infusions of foreign, especially Western, culture. In the conservative reform view, the application of Chinese values to Western technology (reminiscent of the traditional tiyong [substance versus form] formulation evoked in the late-nineteenth-century reform period) would serve the People's Republic in good stead. In the 1980s China's intellectuals and students frequently tested the limits of official tolerance in calls for freer artistic and literary expression, demands for more democratic processes, and even criticisms of the party. These confrontations reached their apex in late 1986, when thousands of students throughout the nation took to the streets to make their views known. In the resulting crackdown, some prominent intellectuals were demoted or expelled from the party. Even its highest official was not invulnerable: General Secretary Hu Yaobang was demoted in January 1987 for having dealt unsuccessfully with public activism and criticism of the party. Hu's ouster paved the way for the chief implementer of the Deng reforms, Zhao Ziyang, premier of the State Council, to assume command of the party and more firmly establish Deng's ideology as the status quo of reform. At the time of the writing of this book, it remained to be seen what degree of success the conservative reform elements would have in effecting a compromise, having placed their own representatives in the Political Bureau Standing Committee and the State Council's highest offices in late 1987. Self-proclaimed successes of the reforms of the 1980s included improvements in both rural and urban life, adjustment of the structures of ownership, diversification of methods of operation, and introduction of more people into the decision-making process. As market mechanisms became an important part of the newly reformed planning system, products circulated more freely and the commodity market was rapidly improved. The government sought to rationalize prices, revamp the wage structure, and reform the financial and taxation systems. The policy of opening up to the outside world (the Chinese eschew the term open door, with its legacy of imperialist impositions) brought a significant expansion of economic, technological, and trade relations with other countries. Reforms of the scientific, technological, and educational institutions rounded out the successes of the Deng-inspired reforms. For the first time in modern Chinese history, the reforms also were being placed on the firm basis of a rational body of law and a carefully codified judicial system. Although reform and liberalization left the once more-strictly regimented society open to abuses, the new system of laws and judicial organizations continued to foster the stable domestic environment and favorable investment climate that China needed to realize its modernization goals. Amid these successes, the authorities admitted that there were difficulties in attempting simultaneously to change the basic economic structure and to avoid the disruptions and declines in production that had marked the ill-conceived "leftist experiments" of the previous thirty years. China's size and increasing economic development rendered central economic planning ineffective, and the absence of markets and a modern banking system left the central authorities few tools with which to manage the economy. A realistic pricing system that reflected accurately levels of supply and demand and the value of scarce resources had yet to be implemented. The tremendous pent-up demand for consumer goods and the lack of effective controls on investment and capital grants to local factories unleashed inflationary pressures that the government found difficult to contain. Efforts to transform lethargic state factories into efficient enterprises responsible for their own profits and losses were hampered by shortages of qualified managers and by the lack of both a legal framework for contracts and a consistent and predictable taxation system. The goals of economic reform were clear, but their implementation was slowed by practical and political obstacles. National leaders responded by reaffirming support for reform in general terms and by publicizing the successes of those cities that had been permitted to experiment with managerial responsibility, markets for raw materials, and fundraising through the sale of corporate bonds. National security has been a key determinant of Chinese planning since 1949. Although national defense has been the lowest priority of the Four Modernizations, it has not been neglected. China has had a perennial concern with being surrounded by enemies--the Soviets to the north and west, the Vietnamese to the south, and the Indians to the southwest--and has sought increasingly to project itself as a regional power. In response to this concern and power projection, in the 1970s China moved to augment "people's war" tactics with combined-arms tactics; to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles, nuclear submarines, and other strategic forces; and to acquire sophisticated foreign technologies with military applications. In the international arena, China in the 1980s increasingly used improved bilateral relations and a variety of international forums to project its "independent foreign policy of peace" while opening up to the outside world. March 8, 1988 * * * After the manuscript for this book was completed in the summer of 1987, several momentous events took place in China. Some were alluded to as imminent in the various chapters of the book. From October 25 to November 1, 1987, the Chinese Communist Party held its Thirteenth National Party Congress. Dozens of veteran party leaders retired from active front-line positions. Not least among the changes was the alteration of the Standing Committee of the party Political Bureau--the very apex of power in China--both in personnel and in stated purpose. Deng Xiaoping, Chen Yun, and Li Xiannian stepped down, and Hu Yaobang's demotion to mere Political Bureau membership was confirmed. Only one incumbent--Zhao Ziyang--was left on the Standing Committee. In place of the party elders and Hu Yaobang, a group of mostly younger, more technologically oriented individuals were seated. The Political Bureau's Standing Committee comprised Deng's protg, sixty-eight-year-old Zhao Ziyang (who relinquished his position as head of government to become general secretary of the party); Li Peng, a sixty-year-old, Soviet-educated engineer, who became acting premier of the State Council in Zhao's place (he was confirmed as premier in spring 1988); Qiao Shi, a sixty-four-year-old expert in party affairs, government administration, and legal matters; Hu Qili, a fifty-eight-year-old party Secretariat member in charge of ideological education, theoretical research, and propaganda; and veteran economic planner and conservative reform architect Yao Yilin, the new party elder at age seventy-one. In regard to function, the Political Bureau no longer was conceived of as a group of influential individuals but as a consensual decision-making organization. The party constitution was amended to make the party Secretariat a staff arm of the Political Bureau and its Standing Committee, rather than the somewhat autonomous body it had been since 1982. By mid-1988, the Chinese Communist Party announced that its increasingly well educated membership had risen to 47 million, an all-time high. The retirees were not left without a voice. Deng, eighty-three and still China's de facto leader, retained his positions as chairman of the party and state Central Military Commissions, the latter of which designated him as commander-in-chief of the Chinese armed forces. (Zhao Ziyang was appointed first vice chairman of the party and state Central Military Commissions, giving him military credentials and paving the way for him to succeed Deng.) Eighty-two-year-old Chen Yun gave up his position as first secretary of the party Central Commission for Discipline Inspection but replaced Deng as chairman of the party's Central Advisory Commission, a significant forum for party elders. Li Xiannian who relinquished his position as head of state, or president, to another party elder--eighty-one-year-old Yang Shangkun--to become chairman of the Seventh Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in spring 1988, was left without a leading party position. Hu Yaobang, far from being totally disgraced after his January 1987 debacle, retained membership on the Political Bureau and enjoyed a fair amount of popular support at the Thirteenth National Party Congress and afterward. Below the national level, numerous leadership changes also took place following the Thirteenth National Party Congress. More than 600 younger and better educated leaders of provincial-level congresses and governments had been elected in China's twenty-nine provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities. The Seventh National People's Congress was held from March 25 to April 13, 1988. This congress, along with the Seventh Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, held from March 24 to April 10, 1988, was marked by a new openness and tolerance of debate and dissent. The opening ceremony of the National People's Congress was televised live, and meetings and panel discussions were recorded and broadcast the same day. Chinese and foreign journalists were permitted to attend the panel discussions and question the deputies in press conferences. Dissenting statements and dissenting votes were widely publicized in the domestic press. A spirit of reform prevailed as laws and constitutional amendments were ratified to legitimize private business and land sales and to encourage foreign investment. The State Council was restructured and streamlined. Fourteen ministries and commissions were dissolved and ten new ones--the State Planning Commission and ministries of personnel, labor, materials, transportation, energy, construction, aeronautics and astronautics industry, water resources, and machine building and electronics industry--were established. Many of the ministries that were dissolved were converted into business enterprises responsible for their own profits and losses. Li Peng was elected premier of the State Council, as expected, and Yao Yilin and fifty-nine-year-old financial expert Tian Jiyun were re-elected as vice premiers. Sixty-six-year-old former Minister of Foreign Affairs Wu Xueqian also was elected vice premier. State councillors, all technocrats chosen for their professional expertise, were reduced in number from eleven to nine. All state councillors except Beijing mayor Chen Xitong and Secretary General of the State Council Chen Junsheng served concurrently as heads of national-level commissions or ministries. Although seven of the nine were new state councillors, only Li Guixian, the newly appointed governor of the People's Bank of China, was new to national politics. On a move that seemed to bode well for reform efforts, long-time Deng ally and political moderate Wan Li was selected to replace Peng Zhen as chairman of the Standing Committee of the Seventh National People's Congress. The conservative Peng had been considered instrumental in blocking or delaying many important pieces of reformist legislation. It also was decided at the Seventh National People's Congress to elevate Hainan Island, formerly part of Guangdong Province, to provincial status and to designate it as a special economic zone. In September and October 1987 and again in March 1988, riots erupted in the streets of Lhasa, the capital of Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet). Calls for "independence for Tibet" and expressions of support for the exiled spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, were made amid violence that claimed the lives of at least six people in 1987 and at least nine more (including policemen) in 1988. Many more were reported to have been badly injured. Although Chinese authorities condemned the riots, their initial response was restrained in comparison with actions they had taken against earlier anti-Chinese demonstrations in Xizang. In addition, the authorities accompanied their censure of the Lhasa riots with a plethora of publicity on advances made by the inhabitants of Xizang in recent years and a lifting of travel restrictions on foreign correspondents. The March 1988 rioting spread to neighboring Qinghai Province, where there is a sizable Tibetan (Zang) minority. This time the authorities resorted to sterner measures, such as military force and numerous arrests, but only after offering lenient treatment to rioters who turned themselves in voluntarily. By mid-1988, it appeared that both the Dalai Lama, concerned that violence and bloodshed in his homeland was out of control, and the Chinese government, worried about instability in a strategic border area, were displaying greater flexibility in their respective positions. The January 1988 death of Taiwan's leader, Chiang Ching-kuo, brought expressions of sympathy from Zhao Ziyang and other Chinese Communist Party leaders and renewed calls for the reunification of China under the slogan "one country, two systems." Implicit in the mainland's discussion of the transfer of power to a new generation of leaders--Taiwan-born Li Teng-hui succeeded Chiang--was regret that the opportunity had been lost for reaching a rapprochement with the last ruling member of the Chiang family. Beijing appealed to the patriotism of the people in Taiwan and called for unity with the mainland but, at the same time, kept a close watch for any sentiments that might lead to independence for Taiwan. In foreign affairs, Beijing continued to balance its concern for security with its desire for an independent foreign policy. China reacted cautiously to the signing of a nuclear arms treaty by the Soviet Union and the United States and refused to hold its own summit with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Despite a lessening of tensions between Beijing and Moscow and greatly improved Chinese relations with the governments and ruling parties throughout Eastern Europe, China continued to insist that the Soviet Union would have to end its support for Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia, withdraw all of its troops from Afghanistan, and significantly reduce Soviet forces deployed on the Sino-Soviet border and in the Mongolian People's Republic before relations between the Chinese and Soviet governments and parties could improve. By mid-1988 there were indications that the Soviet Union was taking steps to remove these "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations. As early as the fall of 1986, the Soviet Union announced the pullback of a significant number of troops from Mongolia and the Sino-Soviet border. In May 1988 Moscow began withdrawing troops from Afghanistan with the goal of evacuating its forces from that country by early 1989. But China remained skeptical of Vietnamese government announcements that it would withdraw 50,000 troops from Cambodia by the end of 1988, and China's leaders continued to pressure the Soviet Union to exert more influence on Vietnam to secure an early withdrawal of all Vietnamese troops from Cambodia. Already strained Sino-Vietnamese relations were exacerbated when Chinese and Vietnamese naval forces clashed in March 1988 over several small islands in the strategically located Nansha (Spratly) archipelago. In Sino-American relations, disputes over trade and technology transfer in 1987 were further clouded by United States concern over reported Chinese Silkworm missile sales to Iran, sales of Dongfeng-3 intermediate range missiles to Saudi Arabia, and disclosures that Israel allegedly assisted China in the development of the missile system later sold to the Saudis. Another concern was China's protest over an October 1987 United States Senate resolution on the "Tibetan question" that focused on alleged human rights violations in Xizang. A visit to Washington, by then Minister of Foreign Affairs Wu Xueqian in March 1988, however, had salutary effects on bilateral relations: China made assurances that it would cease Silkworm missile sales to Iran and the United States pledged to continue to make desired technologies available to China. The perennial Taiwan issue and problems in Xizang apparently were subsumed by larger national interests. In February 1988 Beijing China achieved its long-sought goal of establishing diplomatic relations with Uruguay, one of the few nations that still had state-to-state ties with Taipei. With this accomplishment China increased its diplomatic exchanges to 134 countries, while Taiwan's official representations were reduced to 22. The dynamism of China's domestic activities and international relations will continue the new millennium approaches. Developments in the all-encompassing reform program and their resulting impact on Chinese society, particularly the efforts of China's leaders to bring increasing prosperity to the more than 1 billion Chinese people, and China's growing participation and influence in the international community will remain of interest to observers throughout the world. July 15, 1988 Robert L. Worden, Andrea Matles Savada, and Ronald E. Dolan -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This file extracted from Dept. of Commerce, Economics & Statistic's Division's May 1994 NATIONAL TRADE DATA BANK (NDTB) CD-ROM, SuDoc C1.88:994/5/V.2 Processed 6/10/1994 by RCM (UM-St. Louis Libraries)/ AAH90006 .